Classics

الله يسعدكم عجلو علي
وعلى فكرة ابي اقولكم لاتعطوني الموقع لاني ماراح اعرف كيف اختار الكلام المهم والمفيد
الله يخليكم اللي راح تجيبيلي الموقع اذا ممكن عن طريق اللصق والنسخ تنسخ لي الكلام المهم والمفيد لاني ماراح اعرف اختارة

Tragedy and Comedy. Three types of drama were composed in Athens: tragedy, comedy, and satyr plays , the latter of which seemed not to be taken quite as seriously, at least during the Greek Enlightenment (450-400). The ancients distinguished between tragedy and comedy in two ways. The first, the Aristotelian tradition, defined tragedy as a drama which concerns better than average people (heroes, kings, gods) who suffer a transition from good fortune to bad fortune, and who speak in an elevated language. Tragedy, in the Aristotelean tradition, serves the purpose of purging the soul of the "fear and pity" which most of us carry around (Aristotle called this catharsis ). Comedy concerns average, or below average, people (people like you and me) who enjoy a transition from bad circumstances to good (but not too good) and who speak everyday language. The second, or rhetorical tradition, defined comedy as a fiction which, though not true, is at least believable (that is, realistic), while tragedy is a fiction which is neither true nor believable. Plato and most of antiquity (and the Middle Ages) looked at drama from this second, rhetorical, tradition. The Aristotelian tradition does not really become important until the Renaissance. It's important to realize that comedy isn't necessarily "funny," at least in classical Athens, and tragedy isn't necessarily "tragic" (many tragedies have happy endings), so any neat definition doesn't really work. Also, Aristotle's famous theory of the "tragic flaw," that is, that the reason the hero of a tragedy suffers a bad change in fortune is because he or she has some character "flaw," is not very helpful in understanding most Greek tragedies.
Tragedies were part of a religious festival to Dionysus. On each of three days, three tragedies and a satyr-play were presented by the same poet; in some cases the plays were connected in theme and we now call them a trilogy, such as the Oresteia (the three Theban plays by Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannos , Oedipus at Colonus , and Antigone , were not presented together and are not a trilogy). A panel of judges awarded a prize for the best group of plays. Aeschylus and Sophocles usually won when they presented plays, but the other great playwright of classical Athens, Euripides, won only five times.

The plot of a tragedy usually followed a known myth, partly perhaps for ease of exposition; but much flexibility was possible in handling the story. Normally the dramas begin with a prologue by one or two actors; then the chorus enters and sings its first song; and a number of "acts" follow, separated by choral odes. The choruses are not simply interludes, but often vital for understanding the play; the chorus is not simply a spectator or commentator, but often a direct participant in the action. The actors also sometimes sing, often in responsion to the chorus, as well as engage in dialogue with each other.

Origins. Origins of Athenian tragedy and comedy are obscure. The basic background is the existence, perhaps for centuries, of a chorus , with a leader, singing a song about some legendary hero; then the leader, instead of singing about the hero, began to impersonate him. Add spoken dialogue, and we have "tragedy" in the Greek form. The further addition of a second actor (or perhaps the leader of a second chorus?) made action and on-stage conflict of views possible. The third actor is still not used by Aeschylus for three-way dialogue, but is silent on stage or is off-stage changing roles. Early tragedy may have been largely sung, like a cross between a modern oratorio and a modern opera. The very first prize for tragedy went to Thespis (hence our word "thespian") in 534.

It is important to understand that drama began in the Greek world as a form of religious ritual; and although drama in classical Athens became a great day out and ripping good entertainment, especially if there was alot of blood and gore, its religious character was never really lost on the audience. Hence, the drama works out many of the characteristics all religious ritual works out: explaining the relation of the human to the divine, of the human to the material world, of explaining violence and its origins, and attempting to control the irrational and the material worlds.

Production. The theatre of the later 5th century consisted of a large circular orchestra, or dancing-floor, for the chorus, surrounded on more than half its circumference by the audience; on the other side was a low stage offering easy communication with the orchestra. Behind the stage was some kind of building probably with a large central door and a roof. The chorus could enter the orchestra from either side. The chorus (from 12-15 people) sang and danced; their leader might engage in dialogue with the actors; they were always men, masked and in costume. In the early plays of Aeschylus there were only two actors; by about 450 B.C., a third had been added; all were men, taking several parts each if necessary. The poet composed the music and the dance as well as the text, directed the production, and trained the chorus; some dramatists also played the leading roles.

The Development of Athenian Tragedy
The problematic relationship that Greeks believed existed between gods and humans formed the basis of classical Athens' most enduring cultural innovation: the tragic dramas performed over the course of three days at the major annual festival held in honor of the god Dionysus. These plays, still read, translated, and produced on stage today around the world, were presented in ancient Athens as part of a drama contest, in keeping with the competitive spirit characteristic of many events held in the gods' honor. The earliest tragedies were composed in the late sixth century, but Athenian tragedy reached its peak as a dramatic form in the fifth century.

10.2.1. The Nature of Tragedy
The term tragedy--derived, for reasons now lost, from the Greek words for goat and song--referred to plays with plots that involved fierce conflict and characters that represented powerful forces, both divine and human. Tragedies were written in verse in elevated, solemn language and often based on stories about the violent consequences of the interaction between gods and humans and of conflict among human beings. Tragic plots frequently were mainly constructed from myths, although a few tragedies dealt with contemporary historical events. The plot of a tragedy often ended with a resolution to the trouble, but only after considerable suffering.

Origins of Greek Drama

Ancient Greeks from the 5th century BC onwards were fascinated by the question of the origins of tragedy and comedy. They were unsure of their exact origins, but Aristotle and a number of other writers proposed theories of how tragedy and comedy developed, and told stories about the people thought to be responsible for their development. Here are some excerpts from Aristotle and other authors which show what the ancient Greeks thought about the origins of tragedy and comedy.

Aristotle on the origins of Tragedy and Comedy



1. Indeed, some say that dramas are so called, because their authors represent the characters as "doing" them (drôntes). And it is on this basis that the Dorians lay claim to the invention of both tragedy and comedy. For comedy is claimed by the Megarians here in Greece, who say it began among them at the time when they became a democracy , and by the Megarians of Sicily on the grounds that the poet Epicharmas came from there and was much earlier than Chionides and Magnes; while tragedy is claimed by certain Dorians of the Peloponnese. They offer the words as evidence, noting that outlying villages, called dêmoi by the Athenians, are called kômai by them, and alleging that kômôdoi (comedians) acquired their name, not from kômazein (to revel), but from the fact that, being expelled in disgrace from the city, they wandered from village to village. The Dorians further point out that their word for "to do" is drân, whereas the Athenians use prattein. (Aristotle: Poetics Chapter 3)



2. And in accordance with their individual types of character, poetry split into two kinds, for the graver spirits tended to imitate noble actions and noble persons performing them, and the more frivolous poets the doings of baser persons, and as the more serious poets began by composing hymns and encomia, so these began with lampoons....Thus among the early poets, some became poets of heroic verse and others again of iambic verse. Homer was not only the master poet of the serious vein, unique in the general excellence of his imitations and especially in the dramatic quality he imparts to them, but was also the first to give a glimpse of the idea of comedy ...And once tragedy and comedy had made their appearance, those who were drawn to one or the other of the branches of poetry, true to their natural bias, became either comic poets instead of iambic poets, or tragic poets instead of epic poets because the new types were more important-- i.e. got more favorable attention, than the earlier ones. Whether tragedy has, then, fully realized its possible forms or has not yet done so is a question the answer to which both in the abstract and in relation to the audience may be left for another discussion. Its beginnings, certainly, were in improvisation , as were also those for comedy, tragedy originating in impromptus by the leaders of dithyrambic choruses, and comedy in those of the leaders of the phallic performances which still remain customary in many cities. Little by little tragedy grew greater as the poets developed whatever they perceived of its emergent form, and after passing through many changes, it came to a stop, being now in possession of its specific nature . It was Aeschylus who first increased the number of the actors from one to two and reduced the role of the chorus, giving first place to the dialogue. Sophocles the third actor and painted scenery. Again, in magnitude; from little plots and ludicrous language (since the change was from the satyr play), tragedy came only late in its development to assume an air of dignity, and its meter changes from the trochaic tetrameter to the iambic trimeter. Indeed, the reason why they used the tetrameter at first was that their form of poetry was satyric and hence more oriented toward dancing; but as the spoken parts developed, natural instinct discovered the appropriate meter, since of all metrical forms the iambic trimeter is best adapted for speaking. (This is evident, since in talking with one another we very often utter iambic trimeters, but seldom dactylic hexameters, or if we do we depart from the tonality of normal speech. Again, in the number of episodes -- but as for this and the way in which reportedly each of the other improvements came about, let us take it all as said, since to go through the several details would no doubt be a considerable task. (Aristotle: Poetics Chapter 4)

Greek tragedies and comedies were always performed in outdoor theaters. Early Greek theaters were probably little more than open areas in city centers or next to hillsides where the audience, standing or sitting, could watch and listen to the chorus singing about the exploits of a god or hero. From the late 6th century BC to the 4th and 3rd centuries BC there was a gradual evolution towards more elaborate theater structures, but the basic layout of the Greek theater remained the same. The major components of Greek theater are labled on the diagram above.

Orchestra: The orchestra (literally, "dancing space") was normally circular. It was a level space where the chorus would dance, sing, and interact with the actors who were on the stage near the skene. The earliest orchestras were simply made of hard earth, but in the Classical period some orchestras began to be paved with marble and other materials. In the center of the orchestra there was often a thymele, or altar. The orchestra of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was about 60 feet in diameter.

Theatron: The theatron (literally, "viewing-place") is where the spectators sat. The theatron was usually part of hillside overlooking the orchestra, and often wrapped around a large portion of the orchestra (see the diagram above). Spectators in the fifth century BC probably sat on cushions or boards, but by the fourth century the theatron of many Greek theaters had marble seats.

Skene: The skene (literally, "tent") was the building directly behind the stage. During the 5th century, the stage of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was probably raised only two or three steps above the level of the orchestra, and was perhaps 25 feet wide and 10 feet deep. The skene was directly in back of the stage, and was usually decorated as a palace, temple, or other building, depending on the needs of the play. It had at least one set of doors, and actors could make entrances and exits through them. There was also access to the roof of the skene from behind, so that actors playing gods and other characters (such as the Watchman at the beginning of Aeschylus' Agamemnon) could appear on the roof, if needed.

Parodos: The parodoi (literally, "passageways") are the paths by which the chorus and some actors (such as those representing messengers or people returning from abroad) made their entrances and exits. The audience also used them to enter and exit the theater before and after the performance.

Greek Theaters Click here to explore more about Greek theaters in Perseus, with descriptions, plans, and images of eleven ancient theaters, including the Theater of Dionysus in Athens, and the theater at Epidaurus.




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5. Structure of the plays read in Humanities 110

The basic structure of a Greek tragedy is fairly simple. After a prologue spoken by one or more characters, the chorus enters, singing and dancing. Scenes then alternate between spoken sections (dialogue between characters, and between characters and chorus) and sung sections (during which the chorus danced). Here are the basic parts of a Greek Tragedy:

a. Prologue: Spoken by one or two characters before the chorus appears. The prologue usually gives the mythological background necessary for understanding the events of the play.

b. Parodos: This is the song sung by the chorus as it first enters the orchestra and dances.

c. First Episode: This is the first of many "episodes", when the characters and chorus talk.

d. First Stasimon: At the end of each episode, the other characters usually leave the stage and the chorus dances and sings a stasimon, or choral ode. The ode usually reflects on the things said and done in the episodes, and puts it into some kind of larger mythological framework.

For the rest of the play, there is alternation between episodes and stasima, until the final scene, called the...

e. Exodos: At the end of play, the chorus exits singing a processional song which usually offers words of wisdom related to the actions and outcome of the play.

:)
اختي الغالية جيل
اسال الله العلي العظيم رب العرش العظيم ان يجزيكي عنا خير الجزاء وان يجعل كل حرف تكتبينة في موازين حسناتك وان يرزقك الدراين وان ييسر لكي كل ماستصعب عليكي وان يجعل الجنة داركي وان يفتح لكي ابواب الخيراينما كنتي انة ولي ذاللك والقادر علية

اختي جيل والله ماني عارفة كيف ارد لكي الجميل
واكثر شي اقدر اسوية لك هو الدعاء من كل قلبي
فو الله يالغالية اني ادعيلك من كل قلبي وحتى امي اقولها تدعيلك
اعذريني على كلماتي المتواضعة لكن خرجتها من قلبي

اختك في الاسلام
الصغيرة سمية
اللي تكسر المواعين :angry:

:( :angry: :angry: :angry:
اختي الغالية نبض الوفا
والله اني مستحية منك بالمرة
اعذريني والله يالغالية ماشفت اسمك الا الحين لما دخلت على الموضوع مرة ثانية
العذر من الله ثم منك :confused-
الله يجزاكي الجنة يالغالية
واسال الله لكي السعادة والتوفيق في الدنيا والاخرة
والله يالغالية انة من الخجل ماني دراية وش اقولك لاني والله احلفلك اني ماشفت اسمك حسبتها كلها بواسطة اختي جيل الله يجزاها خير
لكن ماابيك يالغالية تزعلين علي
اسال الله ان يغفر لكي ذنبك وان يجعلكي في الفردوس الاعلى من الجنة وان يفتح لكي ابواب الخير

اختي الغالية نبض الوفا والله من الخجل منك ماني دارية ويش اقولك اعيدها مرة ثانية لاني خجلانة منك فااعذريني لاني والله ماشفت اسمك ياعزيزتي
اعتبريني اخت الصغيرة
وابي اشوف ابتسامة وماابيك تزعلين مني :(